School Safety Expert Witnesses
The SEAK Expert Witness Directory contains a comprehensive list of school safety expert witnesses who testify, consult and provide litigation support on school safety and related issues. School safety expert witnesses and consultants on this page may form expert opinions, draft expert witness reports, and provide expert witness testimony at deposition and trial. The issues and subjects these school safety expert witnesses testify regarding may include: School Safety, Special Education, Bullying, Child Sexual Abuse, School Security, Ada, Discrimination, Education, Grooming, Investigations, Molestation, Sexual Abuse, Use Of Force, Active Shooter, and Boundary Violations.
Use the search box above to further refine your search for school safety expert witnesses by keyword and state. Attorneys contact the experts directly – with no middleman.
Elisa Mula
Security, Premises Liability
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schools, school safety, foreseeability, facial recognition, alarms, access control, surveillance, parking lots, bars, hotels, concerts, sporting events, apartments, retail, guards, lighting, risk assessments, security adequacy
Security consultant and expert witness. Masters degree in protection management, physical security. Diverse experience with security technology such as access control, facial recognition, and video surveillance. Significant teaching/training experience. Special experience in school security.
Lee A Allton
Lee Allton
Mission Viejo, California
School Safety, Education & Schools
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Child Care, Child Care Administration, Health and Safety Child Care, Preschool Administration, Title 22 Regulations, Child Care Non-Profit Administration, Title 5 Regulations, Child care Best Business Practices
Diane Cranley
Diane Cranley Consulting
Laguna Niguel, California
Child Abuse, School Safety
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child sexual abuse, sexual assault, molestation, grooming, sexual misconduct, educator misconduct, Title IX sexual harassment, child sexual abuse prevention, best practices, boundary violations, boundary policies, mandated reporter, failure to report, school, after school, sports, reporting
I am an expert in child sexual abuse prevention in youth-serving organizations. While organizations may not be able to stop every case of child sexual abuse within their programs, there are best practices that when followed, significantly lower the risk of abuse occurring and minimize delays in reporting.
I can help by:
• Identifying and evaluating valuable discovery materials including an organization’s policies, practices, documentation, and training
• Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of your case by comparing those organizational materials to best practices to identify the gaps
• Differentiating the failure of individual mandated reporters versus organizational failures based on that gap analysis and case materials
• Identifying grooming behaviors that are cause for reasonable suspicion and reporting
• Supplying best practices and relevant research to substantiate my opinion as it relates to your case
• Educating the judge and jurors on grooming behaviors and boundaries ...
Jon D. Sand, EdD
Thousand Oaks, California
Education & Schools, School Safety
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Education, Discrimination, Employment, Unfair Labor & Wrongful Termination, Special Education, IEP, IDEA, ADA, Section 504, Student Support Services, Accommodations, School Safety & Security, Student Safety, Standard & Duty of Care, Bullying, Mandated Reporting, School Comparisons and Evaluations
Introduction
Dr. Jon D. Sand is an expert in pre-K-12 Education and Student Support Services in Higher Education. With over 35 years of direct experience, he holds multiple requisite education teaching and administrative credentials, having completed a Doctor of Education degree in K-12 Educational Leadership with a Master of Science degree in Special Education. His expertise covers best practices in general and special education teaching, learning, interventions, due process, special needs eligibility and case management. Further, Dr. Sand has significant direct experience with Human Resources, school site safety, including student supervision, and overall district governance and operations.
Dr. Sand is qualified to provide evaluative consultations and reviews of public and private schools. This stems from his tenure in K-12 education in completing accurate assessments of a students' educational needs, evaluating K-12 instructional and operation programs, and providing extensive s...
Joseph S Schwartzberg, Ed.D.
Special Education Expert Witness
Vista, California
Education & Schools, School Safety
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Special Education, standards of care for children with disabilities, Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
Fully credentialed/certified in special education. Administrative credentials in both NY and California. Served as a classroom teacher and Principal in schools designed to serve special populations as well as general education/mainstream environments. Served as Senior SELPA Director. Taught university classes designed to prepare prospective special education teachers. Developed and implemented agreements with other agencies with responsibilities to persons with disabilities. Development , implementation and evaluation of special education programs. Establish protocols for standards of care for students with disabilities. Expertise and trial testimony experience in matters concerning school safety and child abuse.
Special Education Expert witness . Particular expertise in issues related to the standards of care for children with disabilities. Extensive experience testifying in state and federal court on matters concerning the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Secti...
Elisa Mula
Westport, Connecticut
Security, Premises Liability
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schools, school safety, foreseeability, facial recognition, alarms, access control, surveillance, parking lots, bars, hotels, concerts, sporting events, apartments, retail, guards, lighting, risk assessments, security adequacy
Security consultant and expert witness. Masters degree in protection management, physical security. Diverse experience with security technology such as access control, facial recognition, and video surveillance. Significant teaching/training experience. Special experience in school security.
William L. Bainbridge, PhD, FACFE
William L. Bainbridge, PhD, FACFE & Associates, LLC
Jacksonville, Florida
Education & Schools, School Safety
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school evaluation, sexual abuse, child custody school evaluation, school standards of care, school safety, education standards of care, school related accidents, education, higher education, secondary education, elementary education, playground accidents, athletics and recreation
William L. Bainbridge, Ph.D., FACFE, is a forensic education expert with extensive experience in school, college and preschool related accidents, incidents & sexual abuse/sexual assault and educational evaluation for child custody. He has been court qualified as a schooling and education standards/policy expert in over 30 states. President and CEO of the SchoolMatch® Institute and Distinguished Research Professor at The University of Dayton, he is the former superintendent of three school districts in Ohio and Virginia and served on the executive staff of the Ohio Department of Education.
Anastasia Germain, Ed.D.
Childcare Professional Services, LLC
Hobe Sound, Florida
Education & Schools, School Safety
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Childcare and Early Childhood Education, Childcare Operations, Licensing and Regulations, Supervision and Staffing, Health and Safety Compliance, Policies and Procedures, Program Development, Enrollment Management, Daycare, Preschool, Summer Camp
Anastasia Germain, Ed.D. is a childcare and early childhood education expert with thirty years of experience in both the public and private sectors. As the founder and former operator of a licensed childcare center, she has extensive knowledge of childcare operations including, but not limited to, licensing and regulations, supervision and staffing, health and safety compliance, policies and procedures, program development and enrollment management. She has held positions as an elementary teacher, reading specialist, curriculum supervisor, adjunct/assistant professor, educational consultant and director. Dr. Germain has a Doctorate in Education, Reading, Writing, and Literacy from the University of Pennsylvania, a Master's Degree in Reading Education from Rowan University, and a Bachelor's Degree in Elementary Education and Psychology from Rowan University. She is certified as a supervisor, reading specialist, and elementary teacher.
Michael S. Dorn
Safe Havens International
Juliette, Georgia
School Safety, Emergency Preparedness
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School Security, School Shootings, Run Hide Fight, School Child Abuse, Active Shooter, School Sexual Assault, School Violence. Active Shooter Training, Bullying, Student Supervision, ALICE Training, School Resource Officers
Leroy K. James, MS
L. K. James & Associates
Cheltenham, Maryland
Law Enf & Criminal Justice, School Safety
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School Security, Clery Act Compliance, Campus Security Operations, Investigations, Emergency Management, Special Events Management, Policies and Procedures, Community Policing, Consortium Building, Patrol Operations, Local Law Enforcement Collaboration, Training & Education
Mr. James has served as a University Chief of Police, as well as an Executive Director for Campus Safety and Security at two (2) four-year higher education research institutions, and at a community college in the Washington DC and Baltimore metropolitan region. In those positions he served as the chief architect for the safety and security infrastructure for several different campuses and over 50,000 students. He also served as an adjunct professor in criminal justice at a community college. He serves as the founder of a campus security consulting firm that specializes in assisting university leaders comply with their federal responsibilities under the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act (Clery Act), and the Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act.
Mr. James has served as the Training and Education Coordinator for the Historically Black Colleges and Universities - Law Enforcement Executives and Administrators (HBCU-LEEA) organization whic...
Scott J Hilden
Police use of force/practice and procedures
S. J. Hilden Consulting
SOUTH LYON, Michigan
Police Practices & Procedures, School Safety
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use of force, civil liability, policy procedures, school policing, premise liability, police operations, risk management, crime prevention, police training, supervision, management, pursuits, internal investigations, racial profiling, best practice, investigations, excessive force, misconduct
With over 32 years of dedicated service in law enforcement, I have built a career focused on leadership, operational excellence, and the safety of the communities I serve. As the Chief of Police and Director of Public Safety for a community of 33,000 residents, I oversee all police and fire department operations. My primary goal is to uphold the highest standards in both departments while continually implementing best practices to ensure effective public safety.
My background includes a deep expertise in defensive tactics, the use of force, police procedures, and comprehensive training programs. I’ve gained substantial experience in policy development, internal investigations, and risk management. Throughout my career, I have guided departments to achieve and maintain accreditation from the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) and other respected bodies, ensuring strict adherence to national standards. Additionally, my work has extended to emergency vehi...
R. Leslie Nichols, MSSA, CPP, CSC
Child Sexual Abuse Expert - Schools & Organization
R.L. Nichols & Associates, LLC
Oxford, Mississippi
School Safety, Premises Liability
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sex abuse, child sexual abuse, molestation, grooming, harassment, bullying, school, church, camp, bus, afterschool, sports, olympic, mentor, scouting, coach, background check, negligent hiring, negligent supervision, negligent retention
Mr. Nichols has over 30 years’ experience at the national and local level involving the protection of children. Since 2016, he has served as an expert witness for plaintiff or defense in cases involving sex abuse and other types of harm to youth in schools, churches, camps, sports, buses, mentoring, scouting and afterschool programs. Examples from past cases include:
• Afterschool program director molests teen girl
• Scoutmaster molests boy
• Adult mentor molests boy
• Female school counselor molests boy
• School assistant molests special needs girl
• Karate club coach molests multiple teen girls
• Swimming coach molests teen girl
• High school golf instructor molests female student
• Volunteer youth baseball coach molests multiple boys
• Tennis instructor molests young girls
• Male students molest special needs girl during school
• Male student molests special needs girl on institutional van
• School bus supervisor molests boy on bus
• Boy molests girl on church van
• Church volun...
David Wolowitz, J.D.
Wolowitz JD Consulting LLC
Greenland, New Hampshire
Education & Schools, School Safety
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School standard of care, educator misconduct, educator sexual abuse, coaching misconduct, trusted adult misconduct, molestation, child sexual abuse, grooming, boundary violations, school investigations, student misconduct, negligent supervision, harassment, bullying, hazing, discrimination, Title IX
David Wolowitz, J.D., serves as an expert witness on the standard of care for schools and other youth-serving organizations to safeguard children from misconduct by trusted adults. He has been retained by plaintiffs and defendants on matters throughout the country in over a dozen states both a consulting and a testifying expert.
In addition to being retained for current matters, Mr. Wolowitz can testify on the evolution of the standard of care for child safeguarding over the past decades. He has followed social science research and literature about the prevention of and response to child sexual abuse since the 1970s. He has been retained for multiple matters involving historical abuse claims dating back to the 1970s and 1980s.
Mr. Wolowitz has served as an expert in cases around the country involving current and past school standards of care for protecting the health and safety of students, as well as the adequacy of school policies, training, and investigations. He is knowledge...
John F. Doherty, Ed.D.
Renowned School Liability Expert Witness
School Liability Expert Group
Lambertville, New Jersey
Education & Schools, School Safety
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Title IX, 1983, wrongful death, school and youth-serving agency liability, negligent hiring, personal injury, sexual abuse, harassment and bullying, physical abuse, student/child supervision, special education, child custody & school review, school security, daycare, camps, colleges & universities
At School Liability Expert Group, we provide services from case inception through resolution across the United States and Canada. Determining the merit of a case, assisting with the development of pleadings, deposition focus and questions, conducting file and deposition review and analysis, developing expert reports, and offering testimony at deposition and trial are some of the services provided. Through the experience of its founder, Dr. Edward Dragan, and expert witness, Dr. John Doherty, along with a highly trained staff, School Liability Expert Group provides quality comprehensive services for plaintiff and defendant attorneys in high-profile and complicated cases.
John F. Doherty Ed.D. is an experienced public and private school educator who has focused his work on improving schools through effective hiring practices, supervision and training of staff, and building a school culture of sustainability. He has over 35 years of experience as a Superintendent, Assistant Superinte...
David M. Jacobs, Ed.D.
Special Education/IEP/Section 504/Restraints
Inclusive Education Consultants
Margate, New Jersey
Education & Schools, School Safety
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Special education law, IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), IEP (Individualized Education Program), FAPE (Free Appropriate Public Education), LRE (Least Restrictive Environment), School Restraints, Educational assessments, Behavioral interventions, Inclusion strategies, ADA
Dr. David Jacobs is an esteemed special education expert with extensive experience in educational leadership, inclusive practices, and special education litigation. He currently serves as the Director of Special Services at Mainland Regional High School, overseeing Child Study Teams, special education teachers, Section 504 Plans, School Wellness Team, related services, and paraprofessionals. With a Doctorate in Educational Leadership and Inclusive Practices, Dr. Jacobs has dedicated over a decade to advocating for the rights of students with disabilities and improving educational outcomes through innovative program development.
Key Expertise:
Special Education Law Compliance: Expert knowledge of federal and state regulations, including IDEA, Section 504, and ADA, with proven success in ensuring compliance and advocating for student rights.
Individualized Education Plans (IEPs): Specialized in IEP development, review, and litigation, Dr. Jacobs has provided expert analysis and testi...
Brent E Morgan
American Priority Project
Hickory , North Carolina
Police Practices & Procedures, Law Enf & Criminal Justice
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Use of Force, Chase, Traffic, Collision Investigation, School Safety, Active Shooter, Commercial Motor Vehicle, CVSA, Speed Measuring Instruments, Radar, Lidar
I have more than 27 years experience in law enforcement serving in both local city police and state law enforcement. I retired in April of 2024 as a Lieutenant with the North Carolina State Highway Patrol.
I have been a certified law enforcement instructor for more than 17 years and continue to teach Basic Law Enforcement Training (BLET) classes at local police academies. I also have specialized law enforcement instructor certification for speed measuring instruments (Radar/Lidar) and continue to teach, certify and re-certify NC law enforcement officers for their certification to operate these instruments. I have previously been certified to conduct commercial motor vehicle inspections under the Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Alliance (CVSA) and served as a Trooper as well a supervisor in the Motor Carrier Safety Assistance Program (MCSAP) with additional certifications to inspect hazardous materials loads, cargo tanks, hazardous materials bulk packages, and motor coaches (bus...
Wayne S. Promisel
Compass Investigative Services
Leland, North Carolina
Police Practices & Procedures, Law Enf & Criminal Justice
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Investigations, Child Abuse, School Safety, Sexual Assault/Exploitation, Domestic Assault, Death/Cold Cases, Victimology, Investigation Procedures, Multi-agency Investigations, Crisis Management, Police Ethics, Training and Education, Community Policing, Police Supervision, Title IX investigations
Twice retired law enforcement professional spanning forty-years with proven track record of investigating the most serious criminal offenses resulting in a foundation of legal knowledge and extensive courtroom testimony experience. Reputation and character led to specialty assignments in several investigation units following a promotion to rank of Sergeant. One previous certification as expert surrounding sexual abuse allegation within non-profit organization in Florida.
Recipient of recognition and awards for accomplishments associated with networking, collaboration, and policy development within multi-disciplinary team and agency environments to implement law enforcement best practices for local, state, and federal initiatives.
Provider of numerous trainings applying investigative practices as related to topics including victimology, child abuse/exploitation of children, sexual/domestic assaults, violent crimes and death, evidence collection/preservation, and courtroom testimo...
Virginia L. Rhodes, Ed.D.
School cases need a witness with eyes wide open.
SchoolWITNESS
Cincinnati, Ohio
Education & Schools, School Safety
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schools, education, K-12, high school, middle school, school negligence, duty & standard of care, sexual abuse , supervision, principal, student injury, wrongful termination, standard of care, discipline, school culture, school injury, administration, teacher training, school safety, discrimination
35+ years in public education administration, teaching & policy: testifies on training & supervision of school personnel, abuse, discipline, discrimination, school accidents
Dr. Rhodes offers extensive experience on multiple aspects of school-related liability, both elementary and secondary for both plaintiffs and defense.
Dr. Rhodes is an exceptional analytical thinker and writer with keen insight, timely reports and compelling testimony.
Founding Principal of the largest public U.S. urban STEM high school (2008).
Founding Principal of the 1st environmental public high school in Ohio.
Policy--former elected School Board member in large urban district.
Skilled in school transformation, collaborative school design, leadership, experiential education, program design, school culture, discipline & multicultural education
Developer of a unique innovative "T2" teacher hiring process.
Articulate and engaging speaker on school policy, practice, and transformation.
Rhodes has tr...
Kenneth S. Trump, Ed.D.
National School Safety and Security Services
Cleveland, Ohio
School Safety, Education & Schools
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school security, school safety, school shootings, school wrongful death, school assaults, school sexual assaults, school rapes, school violence, school bullying, school crisis, school emergency, school police, security guards, security officers, student supervision, school bus, school gangs, crime
Ken provides experienced, accessible, timely and quality expert services to plaintiff and defense attorneys on preK-12 school safety and security cases. He is an experienced speaker, teacher, news commentator and personal communicator on school safety.
Ken served as an officer, investigator and gang unit supervisor for the Cleveland City Schools' safety division, and as a suburban school security director and assistant gang task force director. During his 30 years in school safety he trained and consulted with school and public safety officials from 50 states and internationally.
Ken is the author, co-author and/or editor of three books, five book chapters and 450 articles on school safety. He appears regularly in national and international news.
Ken is a four-time invited Congressional witness on school safety and emergency preparedness, and testified on bullying to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. He presented to the Sandy Hook Advisory Commission, Education Commission o...
Candace D Perez, Ed.D
Candace
Dallas, Oregon
Education & Schools, School Safety
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Special Education, school personnel, education policy
Summary of Expertise:
Experienced School District Administrator serving public education since 2002.
Professional practice includes: Superintendent of a K-12 school system, State Special Education Director for Oregon, School District Special Education Director, public school Administrator, and classroom teacher.
My experience and background include:
Responsible for Special Education implementation in public schools including Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
Implementation of State and Federal guidelines for instructional practices and placement options for students who experience disabilities.
Implementing Policies and procedures for students who experience disabilities in public and private schools.
Training and implementation of regulations and requirements to school administrators, licensed educators, paraprofessionals, and parents.
Leading systems improvement initiatives.
Managing Human Resou...
Michael Salitore, Ed.D.
Gresham, Oregon
Education & Schools, School Safety
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School Standards of Practice, Special Education, School Safety, Child Abuse, Child Sexual Abuse, Behavior and Discipline, School Mental Health, Title IX and Staff Sexual Misconduct, District and School Administration, Restraint and Seclusion, Evaluation, Assessment, Disability, and Risk Management
Dr. Michael Salitore is an experienced educator serving in public education since 2003. I currently work at the Oregon Department of Education as a coordinator of an investigation unit responding to complaints of sexual misconduct of school staff. I have worked as a school psychologist, assistant principal, special education administrator, director of student services for rural and urban school districts, and adjunct faculty at Clackamas Community College and Portland State University.
My background and expertise allow evaluation of and opinions regarding school and district:
-Policies, procedures, guidelines, and implementation of standards and practices;
-Recruitment, qualifications, hiring, and retention of teachers, specialists, and staff;
-Training programs and requirements of teachers, specialists, and staff;
-Duty for schools and school districts to provide a safe learning environment;
-School administration, including governance, curriculum, interventions and instructiona...
Jeffrey Bonner
Scranton, Pennsylvania
Police Practices & Procedures, Law Enf & Criminal Justice
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Criminal Justice, Police Policies, Domestic Violence, Crowd Control, Use of Force, Excessive Force, Sexual Assault, Drug Enforcement, Surveillance, School Safety, Crisis Intervention, Baton, Taser, Firearm, Electronic Control Device
Award-Winning Police Officer. 25+ Years Experience including undercover operations, SWAT Team, and School Resource Officer. Certified Firearms Trainer. Graduate of the FBI National Academy, 272th Session.
Law Enforcement Highlights
• Trained and deployed multiple times in "Mobile Field Force / Civil Disturbances"
• Undercover operations, drug buys, surveillance and preparation of over 400 search warrants
• Specialized training in Barricaded gunman situation resolution
• Member of D.P.D. Pistol Team
• Executive Protection, and advanced driving techniques.
• Served on Multi-jurisdictional SWAT Team
• Patrol Rifle Operator / Designated Marksman Certification
• Certified Firearms Trainer
• Field Training Officer and Supervisor
• Police Honor Guard 2004 through 2015
• Additional command capacities:
• New World Reporting System Build Team / Training of supervisors and Officers, Mobile Field Force Unit Commander
Career Accolades
With Sterling Heights Police Department
• (6) Merit Ci...
JOSEPH W TADRICK, MBA, MS
DHS CWMD
Little River, South Carolina
Security, School Safety
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Terrorism, School Security/Safety, Religious Facilities Security/Safety, Active Shooter Prep, Parking Lots/Garages, Entertainment Venues, Sports Arenas, Transportation Security, Hotel Security, Security Management, Inadequate/Negligent Security, Special Event Security, Workplace Violence
Joseph Tadrick, MBA, MS, is a premises liability and security consultant. Joseph provides consultation regarding security and safety aspects of commercial property management and conducts security audits for various types of commercial premises, including but not limited to: multi-family housing, resorts, hotels, retail and office space, entertainment venues, and sport arenas.
He holds an MBA in Management/Marketing, an MS in Protection Management, and a BA in Psychology. In addition, Joseph was board certified in security management, having earned the prestigious designation of Certified Protection Professional (CPP) (expired 12/19) from ASIS International. As a vetted member of and speaker at InfraGard events, Joseph contributed to and developed a partnership between the FBI and the private sector by providing industry specific insights.
Joseph’s training in physical security, force protection, and Intelligence began when he as a Naval Reserve Intelligence Officer supported th...
Brian M Wolf, M.Ed.
San Antonio, Texas
Education & Schools, School Safety
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De-escalation, Physical Intervention, Bullying, Special Education, Restraint, Conflict Resolution
A native Oregonian, I served in schools there for 37 years as a teacher, coach, HS Principal, Special Education Director and Superintendent prior to retiring from educational leadership in 2015. Subsequently, I worked for another 7 years as a Risk Management Specialist in the insurance industry. My principal duty during that time was conducting 25-30 Crisis Prevention Institute (CPI) de-escalation/physical intervention trainings annually, for Oregon school districts statewide. The primary focus of these trainings was nonviolent crisis intervention with severely emotionally disabled students. Most of the sessions ran for one or two full days in length.
I am currently serving as an Expert Witness in a legal case involving the physical restraint of a student, or lack thereof, engaged in self-injurious behaviors.
Greg H. Bristol
Human Trafficking Investigations Expert
Points, West Virginia
Law Enf & Criminal Justice, School Safety
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Human Trafficking, Sex Trafficking, Labor Trafficking, Sex Trafficking at Hotels, Sexual Abuse by Educators and School Staff, Sexual Abuse by Police Officers, Human Trafficking Awareness Trg for the Hospitality Industry, Civil Rights Violations - Hate Crimes, Financial Fraud, Motor Vehicle Code
Human trafficking thought leader. Award-winning retired FBI Special Agent. Investigated numerous human trafficking crimes. Has trained more than 1,500 law enforcement officers to effectively identify human traffickers and sex offenders. Extensive speaking and writing experience in human trafficking. Additional FBI experience includes foreign counterintelligence, public corruption, the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, civil rights (hate crimes and human trafficking), and 9/11. Member of the Enron Task Force for over four years, formed in the weeks following Enron’s bankruptcy in December 2001 to investigate the company’s collapse.
Mr. Bristol's career as a Michigan State Police Trooper, a Special Agent with the FBI, and a Special Agent with the Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction (SIGAR) in Kandahar, Afghanistan, has given him hands-on experience investigating crimes and collecting evidence. Those jobs included testifying at gran...
You can also find School Safety Expert Witnesses in:
California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon , Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, and West Virginia